What Are Business Metrics? A Comprehensive Guide to Measuring Success
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What Are Business Metrics? A Comprehensive Guide to Measuring Success
1. Introduction: The Foundation of Business Intelligence
You know, it’s funny how often we talk about "gut feelings" in business. "My gut tells me this," or "I just feel like we're doing well." And don't get me wrong, intuition has its place, especially for seasoned leaders who've seen it all. But relying solely on that gut? That's like trying to navigate a dense fog with only a compass and no map – you might be headed in the right direction, but you have no idea if you're about to hit a mountain or sail off a cliff. What we really need, the bedrock upon which all sound business decisions are built, is something far more concrete, something that cuts through the fog and gives us undeniable clarity. We need to talk about business metrics.
1.1. Defining Business Metrics
Alright, let's get down to brass tacks. At its core, when we define business metrics, we're talking about quantifiable measures. Simple as that, right? Well, not quite. It's more than just a number; it's a specific, measurable data point that we use to track, assess, and evaluate the status of particular business processes or, more broadly, the overall health of an enterprise. Think of it as the vital signs of your company. Just like a doctor checks your heart rate, blood pressure, and temperature, a savvy business leader checks their revenue, profit margin, customer satisfaction scores, and website traffic. These are the pulses and breaths of your organization, giving you immediate feedback on its condition. This isn't just about collecting data for data's sake; it's about turning raw information into actionable insights, providing a clear "what are business metrics" answer that transcends mere definition.
The beauty of a good business metric lies in its clarity and objectivity. It strips away the assumptions, the biases, and the hopeful thinking, replacing them with hard facts. When we engage in robust "business measurement," we're not just counting things; we're giving context to those counts. Is a thousand website visitors good? Maybe. Is it good if your goal was ten thousand? Absolutely not. The metric itself is the thousand visitors; the context makes it meaningful. This interplay between the raw number and its surrounding environment is what transforms a simple data point into a powerful diagnostic tool. It’s the difference between saying, "My car is making a noise," and "My car's engine oil pressure is at 5 PSI, which is critically low." One is vague, the other demands immediate action.
What makes a metric truly invaluable is its ability to be tracked over time. It’s not a snapshot; it’s a continuous video feed. By consistently monitoring these quantifiable measures, businesses gain the ability to spot trends – both positive and negative – long before they become unmanageable crises or missed opportunities. This foresight is priceless. It allows for proactive adjustments rather than reactive damage control. If your customer churn rate starts creeping up, you don't wait until half your customer base has vanished; you see the trend, investigate the causes, and implement solutions. That’s the power of consistent "business measurement." It’s about building a narrative with numbers, a story that tells you where you’ve been, where you are, and where you're headed.
Ultimately, understanding what are business metrics is about acknowledging that every aspect of your business, from the grandest strategic initiative to the smallest operational tweak, leaves a quantifiable footprint. Our job as business leaders and managers is to identify those footprints, measure them accurately, and then interpret what they're telling us. It’s about making the invisible visible, taking the abstract and making it concrete. Without this foundation of measurement, you're essentially flying blind, making decisions based on hopeful guesses rather than informed certainty. And in today's fiercely competitive landscape, hope is a notoriously poor business strategy.
1.2. Why Metrics Matter: The Power of Measurement
So, we've defined what business metrics are. But why should you, a busy business owner or manager, even care? Why dedicate precious resources to tracking these numbers? Because, my friend, the importance of business metrics cannot be overstated. They are the compass, the map, and the fuel gauge for your business journey. Without them, you’re not merely guessing; you’re operating in a vacuum, making decisions based on intuition, anecdotes, or worse, the loudest voice in the room. And let me tell you, I've seen more businesses crash and burn due to a lack of objective data than almost any other single factor. It's a sobering thought, but it's the truth.
The fundamental reason why metrics are important in business boils down to one word: control. When you measure, you understand. When you understand, you can influence. Metrics provide the objective reality check that every business needs. They allow for truly informed decision-making, moving you beyond the realm of "I think" to the solid ground of "I know." Imagine a marketing campaign: without metrics like cost per lead or conversion rate, how do you know if it was successful? You don't. You just spent money, crossed your fingers, and hoped for the best. With metrics, you can pinpoint exactly what worked, what didn't, and why, allowing you to optimize future spending and get a significantly better return. This isn't just about making better decisions; it's about making strategic decisions that are backed by undeniable evidence.
Beyond individual decisions, metrics are the backbone of strategic planning. How can you set meaningful goals for the next quarter or year if you don't know your current baseline performance? How can you identify growth opportunities if you can't measure where you're currently falling short? Metrics give you that baseline, that starting point from which all future progress is measured. They allow you to set SMART goals – Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, and Time-bound – because you have the data to define each of those components. Without them, your strategic plan is just a wish list, a collection of aspirations untethered to reality. It's the difference between saying "I want to be richer" and "I will increase my net profit margin by 15% in the next 12 months by optimizing supply chain costs and increasing average order value." One is a dream, the other is a plan.
Moreover, metrics are absolutely essential for identifying trends. And not just the good trends, but the worrying ones too. Think about it: a gradual decline in customer satisfaction might go unnoticed if you're not actively measuring NPS or customer feedback. But if you are measuring it, that slow, insidious dip becomes a flashing red light, prompting you to investigate before you lose a significant portion of your customer base. Conversely, a sudden spike in website traffic from a new source might indicate an untapped market or a successful content piece you can replicate. These trends, both positive and negative, are hidden in your data, waiting to be unearthed by consistent measurement. It's like having an early warning system and a treasure map rolled into one.
Finally, and perhaps most critically for the day-to-day operations, metrics ensure accountability. When you set a target – say, reducing customer service response time to under 5 minutes – and you consistently measure that metric, you create a clear standard. Employees know what's expected, and managers have an objective way to evaluate performance. This isn't about micromanagement; it's about transparency and fairness. It allows for constructive feedback, targeted training, and ultimately, a more productive and engaged workforce. When everyone understands the scoreboard and how their actions contribute to the score, they're more likely to play their best game. That, my friends, is the undeniable power of measurement – it transforms ambiguity into clarity, intention into action, and potential into verifiable success.
Pro-Tip: The "So What?" Test
Whenever you look at a metric, ask yourself: "So what?" If you can't articulate why that number matters, what decision it could influence, or what action it might prompt, then it might be a vanity metric. Focus on metrics that pass the "So What?" test with flying colors.
1.3. Metrics vs. KPIs: Understanding the Nuance
Alright, this is where things can get a little fuzzy for folks just starting out, and honestly, even for some seasoned pros who haven't quite ironed out the distinction. We talk about "metrics" and "KPIs" almost interchangeably sometimes, and while they're definitely related – like siblings, perhaps – they're not identical twins. Understanding the nuance between metrics vs KPIs is crucial for effective business management. You see, every KPI is a metric, but not every metric is a KPI. Think of it like this: every square is a rectangle, but not every rectangle is a square. There's a specific hierarchy and purpose that differentiates them.
Let's start with the broader category: a metric. A metric, as we've established, is any measurable data point related to your business. Customer visits your website? That's a metric. You send out an email? The open rate is a metric. Your team spends time on a project? The hours logged are a metric. These are all valuable pieces of information that describe some aspect of your business's performance or activity. They provide data, they tell you what happened, and they contribute to your overall understanding. They are the raw ingredients, the building blocks of your data universe. You might track hundreds, even thousands, of metrics across your organization, from the obscure to the obvious.
Now, let's talk about KPIs, or Key Performance Indicators. This is where the strategic magic happens. A KPI definition elevates a mere metric to a special status. KPIs are specific, strategic metrics that are directly tied to your critical business objectives. They are the metrics that really matter for measuring progress towards your most important goals. If a metric tells you what happened, a KPI tells you how well you're progressing towards your strategic objectives. They are the vital few, not the trivial many. For instance, if your strategic objective is "Increase customer retention," then your "customer churn rate" isn't just a metric; it becomes a Key Performance Indicator. It's key because it directly reflects your progress on that objective.
The key differentiator is purpose and strategic alignment. A metric is descriptive; a KPI is prescriptive. A metric informs; a KPI drives action and measures success against a specific, predefined goal. Imagine a sales team. The number of calls made is a metric. The number of proposals sent is a metric. The conversion rate of proposals to closed deals, if your strategic objective is to increase sales revenue, becomes a KPI. Why? Because it directly indicates how effectively the sales team is turning potential into actual revenue, which is a core business goal. If that conversion rate dips, it's a red flag that demands immediate attention and strategic adjustment.
Choosing your KPIs is an art and a science. It requires a deep understanding of your business strategy, your objectives, and what truly drives success. You can't have too many KPIs, or they lose their "key" status and become overwhelming. A good rule of thumb is to have a handful of KPIs for each major strategic objective – enough to give you a holistic view, but not so many that you get lost in the weeds. They should be actionable, easy to understand, and clearly communicate whether you're winning or losing on your most important fronts. So, while you might monitor dozens of metrics related to your website, perhaps only "website conversion rate" or "bounce rate for key landing pages" might qualify as a KPI, depending on your overarching digital strategy. Understanding this distinction isn't just academic; it's fundamental to building a truly data-driven, strategically focused organization.
2. Core Categories of Business Metrics
Alright, now that we've got our foundational understanding locked down – what metrics are, why they're crucial, and how they differ from KPIs – it's time to dive into the practical application. You can't just measure everything and expect clarity; you need structure. And the best way to bring structure to the vast world of business data is to categorize it. Just like a good library organizes books by genre, a smart business organizes its metrics by function and focus. This allows for clearer analysis, more targeted insights, and ensures that every department and strategic area has its finger on the pulse of what truly matters to them. Let's break down the core categories, because knowing what to measure is half the battle won.
2.1. Financial Metrics
Let's be brutally honest: if your business isn't financially sound, it's not a business; it's a hobby. And while hobbies are great, they typically don't pay the bills or support a team. That's why financial metrics are often considered the heartbeat of any enterprise. They tell you, in no uncertain terms, whether you're making money, losing money, and how efficiently you're doing either. Ignoring these numbers is akin to ignoring your bank balance – a recipe for disaster. I've seen countless brilliant ideas and passionate teams crumble because they simply weren't paying enough attention to these foundational indicators of business profitability.
First up, the big one: Revenue. This is the total amount of money generated by the sale of goods or services before any expenses are deducted. It’s the top line, the gross income. But let's be clear, high revenue doesn't automatically mean high success. I remember a startup that was boasting about their multi-million dollar revenue, but when we dug into their books, their expenses were even higher! They were effectively selling a dollar for ninety cents and calling it growth. That's why revenue needs its partner in crime: Profit Margin. This metric tells you how much profit you make from each dollar of revenue. It can be gross profit margin (revenue minus cost of goods sold) or net profit margin (revenue minus all expenses, including operating costs, interest, and taxes). A healthy profit margin indicates efficiency and sustainable operations.
Then there's Return on Investment (ROI). Oh, ROI, the holy grail for many a business decision! This metric is about efficiency and effectiveness. It measures the profitability of an investment in relation to its cost. The formula is simple: (Net Profit from Investment - Cost of Investment) / Cost of Investment * 100. If you spend $10,000 on a new marketing campaign and it generates $15,000 in additional profit, your ROI is 50%. This is absolutely critical for evaluating everything from marketing campaigns to new equipment purchases to employee training. It answers the fundamental question: "Was it worth it?" Without a clear understanding of ROI, you're just throwing money at problems and hoping something sticks, which, spoiler alert, rarely works out in the long run.
Now, let's talk about a metric that can make or break early-stage businesses, and even established ones looking to grow rapidly: Customer Acquisition Cost (CAC). This is the total cost associated with convincing a customer to buy your product or service, divided by the number of customers acquired. Think about all your sales and marketing expenses – salaries, advertising, software, events – and then divide that by the number of new customers you brought in during that period. If your CAC is too high relative to the value your customers bring in, you're in trouble. It’s a direct indicator of the efficiency of your sales and marketing efforts. A low CAC means your customer acquisition engine is finely tuned; a high CAC means you're burning through cash to get new buyers, which leads us to another crucial metric.
Speaking of burning cash, for startups and rapidly scaling businesses, Burn Rate is a metric that keeps founders up at night. This is simply the rate at which an unprofitable company is spending its venture capital or cash reserves to finance overhead before generating positive cash flow from operations. It’s usually expressed as a monthly figure. If your burn rate is $50,000 a month and you have $300,000 in the bank, you have six months of runway. Knowing your burn rate is not just about survival; it's about making strategic decisions on when to raise more capital, when to cut costs, or when to pivot. It’s a stark, undeniable reality check on your financial longevity. These financial metrics aren't just numbers on a spreadsheet; they are the story of your business's financial viability, its health, and its potential for sustainable growth. Ignore them at your peril.
2.2. Operational Metrics
While financial metrics tell us if we're making money, operational metrics tell us how we're making that money. These are the gears and cogs of your business engine, measuring the efficiency, productivity, and overall smoothness of your day-to-day processes. This category is all about getting things done, getting them done well, and getting them done without wasting valuable resources. It’s about optimizing the internal workings of your organization, making sure that every step from raw material to finished product or service delivery is as streamlined and effective as possible.
Consider efficiency metrics. These are designed to measure how well resources (time, money, materials, people) are being utilized to produce output. A classic example is "cycle time," which measures the total time it takes to complete a process from start to finish. If it takes 10 days to process an order, and through process optimization, you reduce it to 5 days, you've significantly improved your efficiency. Another common one is "resource utilization rate," which tells you how much of your available capacity (e.g., machine hours, employee hours) is actually being used. Low utilization could mean idle assets or overstaffing; high utilization, conversely, could point to potential bottlenecks or burnout. These metrics are about making every minute and every dollar count.
Then there's productivity. While often confused with efficiency, productivity focuses on the output generated per unit of input. "Units produced per hour" or "revenue per employee" are classic examples. If your manufacturing plant produces 100 widgets per hour, and after implementing a new system, it now produces 120 widgets per hour with the same number of employees, you've increased productivity. This isn't just about working harder; it's often about working smarter, leveraging technology, improving workflows, or enhancing employee skills. Productivity metrics are critical for understanding how effectively your workforce and systems are converting effort into tangible results.
Process optimization is inherently tied to operational metrics. You can't optimize what you don't measure. Metrics like "defect rate," "error rate," or "first-pass yield" (the percentage of products or services that meet quality standards the first time through a process) are invaluable here. If your defect rate is consistently high, you know there's a problem in your manufacturing or service delivery process that needs fixing. By tracking these, you can identify bottlenecks, areas of waste, and opportunities for improvement. It's about continuous improvement, a relentless pursuit of perfection in how you operate.
And let's not forget the crucial realm of supply chain performance. In today's interconnected world, your supply chain can be your biggest asset or your biggest liability. Metrics here include "on-time delivery rate," "inventory turnover" (how many times you sell and replace your inventory in a period), "lead time" (the time from order placement to delivery), and "supplier defect rate." A high on-time delivery rate means happy customers; a low inventory turnover could mean stale stock and tied-up capital. These operational metrics give you visibility into the entire journey of your product or service, from raw materials arriving at your dock to the final product reaching your customer's hands. They are the unsung heroes that ensure your business runs like a well-oiled machine, quietly contributing to profitability and customer satisfaction by making every internal process as smooth and effective as possible.
Insider Note: The "Garbage In, Garbage Out" Rule
Operational metrics are only as good as the data feeding them. If your inventory counts are off, your "inventory turnover" metric will be misleading. Invest in robust data collection and clean data practices from the start. It's painstaking, but absolutely worth it.
2.3. Customer Metrics
Okay, let's shift gears from the internal workings to the external lifeblood of your business: your customers. I mean, without customers, what exactly are we optimizing all those operations for, right? Customer metrics are, in my humble and strong opinion, among the most critical indicators of long-term business health and sustainability. It's not just about getting customers; it's about keeping them happy, making them feel valued, and fostering loyalty that transcends mere transactions. These metrics tell you if you're truly connecting with the people who keep your doors open.
One of the most widely adopted and talked-about customer satisfaction metrics is the Net Promoter Score (NPS). You've probably encountered it: "On a scale of 0-10, how likely are you to recommend [Company X] to a friend or colleague?" It's beautifully simple, yet incredibly powerful. Respondents are categorized into Promoters (9-10), Passives (7-8), and Detractors (0-6). NPS is calculated by subtracting the percentage of Detractors from the percentage of Promoters. A high NPS indicates a strong likelihood of customer advocacy and organic growth; a low or negative NPS is a flashing warning sign that your customer experience needs serious attention. It’s a pulse check on your brand's reputation and customer love.
Equally, if not more, important is the Churn Rate. This metric measures the percentage of customers who stop using your product or service over a given period. If you have 100 customers at the beginning of the month and 5 leave, your churn rate is 5%. High churn is a silent killer for many businesses. You can spend all your marketing budget acquiring new customers, but if they're leaving just as fast, you're essentially pouring water into a leaky bucket. Understanding your churn rate is fundamental to assessing customer retention and identifying issues that might be driving customers away. It’s a direct measure of your ability to keep the relationships you’ve worked so hard to build.
Then we have Customer Lifetime Value (LTV). This is a predictive metric that estimates the total revenue a business can reasonably expect from a single customer account throughout their relationship with the company. It's not just about their first purchase; it's about their entire journey with you. LTV is crucial because it helps you understand how much you can afford to spend on customer acquisition (CAC) and still be profitable. If your LTV is $500 and your CAC is $100, that's a healthy ratio. If your LTV is $50 and your CAC is $100, you're losing money on every new customer, which is a fast track to bankruptcy. Maximizing LTV is a core strategy for sustainable growth.
Finally, let's consider customer engagement. This isn't a single metric but a family of metrics that measure how actively and meaningfully customers interact with your brand, product, or service. This could include:
- Website session duration: How long do users spend on your site?
- Feature adoption rate: How many users are using key features of your software?
- Email open and click-through rates: Are customers interacting with your communications?
- Social media mentions and interactions: Are they talking about you?
- Repeat purchase rate: Are customers coming back for more?
High customer engagement often correlates directly with higher satisfaction, lower churn, and increased LTV. It indicates that your product or service is truly resonating and providing ongoing value. These customer metrics are not just about numbers; they're about understanding the human beings at the heart of your business, nurturing those relationships, and building a loyal community that will sustain your success for years to come.
- Key Customer Metrics for Success:
2.4. Marketing & Sales Metrics
Okay, you've got a great product, solid operations, and you're keeping your existing customers happy. But how do you get new customers? How do you tell the world about what you do? That's where marketing metrics and sales metrics come into play. These are the indicators that tell you how effectively you're attracting interest, generating leads, and converting that interest into actual revenue. In a world saturated with noise, these metrics are your guide to cutting through the clutter and making your message heard, understood, and acted upon. Without them, your marketing budget is just a donation, and your sales team is working on hope alone.
Let's start with the marketing side. A crucial indicator of your outreach effectiveness is website traffic. But it's not just about the sheer volume of visitors; it's about the quality of that traffic. Metrics like "organic search traffic," "referral traffic," and "direct traffic" tell you where your audience is coming from. Beyond that, "bounce rate" (the percentage of visitors who leave your site after viewing only one page) and "average session duration" give you insights into how engaged those visitors are. High quality, engaged traffic is the raw material for lead generation.
Speaking of lead generation, this is the bread and butter of marketing. Metrics here include "number of leads generated," "cost per lead" (CPL), and "lead quality score." CPL is especially important: if you're spending $50 to generate a lead, but that lead only has a 1% chance of converting into a sale, you need to reassess your strategy. Understanding the different stages of your marketing funnel, from initial awareness to qualified lead, is paramount. You need to know if your campaigns are not just bringing people in, but bringing in the right people.
Now, let's transition to the sales side, where the rubber truly meets the road. The conversion rate is king here. This measures the percentage of leads or prospects that convert into paying customers. If you have 100 qualified leads and 10 of them make a purchase, your conversion rate is 10%. This metric is a direct reflection of your sales team's effectiveness, your product's appeal, and the efficiency of your sales process. A low conversion rate could indicate issues with your sales pitch, pricing, or even the quality of leads being passed from marketing. Optimizing your conversion rate is often one of the quickest ways to boost revenue without increasing your marketing spend.
Other vital sales metrics include "average deal size," "sales cycle length" (how long it takes to close a deal), and "sales pipeline value" (the total potential revenue from all deals currently in your sales funnel). These metrics provide a holistic view of your sales operations, helping you forecast revenue, identify potential bottlenecks in the sales process, and coach your sales team more effectively. For instance, if your average deal size is declining, it might signal a need to focus on upselling or targeting higher-value clients.
Finally, for digital marketing metrics, we delve into specifics like "click-through rate (CTR)" for ads and emails, "social media engagement" (likes, shares, comments), and "return on ad spend (ROAS)." These metrics provide granular insights into the performance of your various digital channels. Are your ads compelling enough to earn clicks? Is your content resonating with your audience on social media? Are you getting a positive return on the money you're pouring into online advertising? These marketing & sales metrics are the eyes and ears of your growth engine, ensuring that your efforts to attract and convert customers are not just busy work, but strategically effective and financially rewarding.
2.5. Employee & HR Metrics
You know, we often talk about revenue, profit, and customers, and rightly so. But there's a vital, often underestimated, category of metrics that directly impacts all of those things: your people. Your employees are the engine, the hands, the brains, and the heart of your business. Without a motivated, skilled, and stable workforce, even the best strategies will falter. That's why employee & HR metrics are absolutely indispensable. They tell you if your most valuable asset – your human capital – is thriving, struggling, or simply disengaged. Ignoring these metrics is like trying to drive a car with a perfectly tuned engine but bald tires and an empty gas tank.
One of the most telling indicators of a healthy workplace is employee engagement. This isn't just about employees being "happy"; it's about their commitment, enthusiasm, and sense of purpose in their work. Metrics for employee engagement often come from surveys (e.g., eNPS - Employee Net Promoter Score, or satisfaction with specific aspects like management support, work-life balance, career development). High engagement correlates with lower turnover, higher productivity, and better customer satisfaction. When your employees are engaged, they're more likely to go the extra mile, innovate, and contribute positively to the company culture. It’s the difference between someone just doing their job and someone passionately building their career within your organization.
Then there’s the often-dreaded, but critically important, turnover rate. This measures the percentage of employees who leave your company over a specific period. A high employee turnover rate is incredibly costly, not just in terms of recruitment and training expenses, but also in lost institutional knowledge, reduced morale, and decreased productivity for the remaining team members. Metrics like "voluntary turnover rate" (employees who choose to leave) and "involuntary turnover rate" (employees who are terminated) can provide deeper insights. Understanding why people are leaving is just as important as knowing how many are leaving, often requiring exit interviews and trend analysis.
Closely related is retention. While turnover focuses on departures, retention focuses on those who stay. "Employee retention rate" measures the percentage of employees who remain with the company over a period. High retention is a sign of a positive work environment, competitive compensation, and strong career development opportunities. It signifies that your company is a place where people want to build a long-term future, which is invaluable for stability and growth.
We also need to look at productivity per employee. This can be measured in various ways depending on the role, such as "revenue per employee," "projects completed per employee," or "customer service tickets resolved per agent." While not a perfect measure of individual effort, it helps identify teams or processes that are exceptionally efficient or those that might be struggling, prompting further investigation into workload, training needs, or resource allocation. It's an important piece of the puzzle for understanding overall workforce performance.
Finally, consider metrics around training effectiveness and diversity statistics. For training, you might track "training completion rates," "post-training performance improvements," or "employee skill acquisition rates." Are your learning and development initiatives actually leading to measurable improvements in skills and performance? For diversity, metrics like "percentage of women in leadership," "representation of minority groups across departments," or "pay equity ratios" are becoming increasingly important. These not only reflect your company's values but also contribute to a richer, more innovative, and more resilient workforce. These HR metrics provide the insights needed to cultivate a thriving organizational culture, ensuring that your human capital is not just managed, but truly nurtured and maximized for collective success.
3. The Strategic Importance of Business Metrics
Alright, we've dissected what metrics are and explored the various categories. But here's the kicker: simply having metrics isn't enough. You could have a dashboard bursting with numbers, a veritable kaleidoscope of data points, and still be no closer to making truly impactful decisions. The real power, the strategic leverage, comes from how you use those metrics. It's about transforming raw data into wisdom, moving beyond mere observation to informed action. This is where business metrics ascend from useful tools to indispensable strategic assets, fundamentally changing the way organizations operate and succeed.
3.1. Driving Data-Driven Decision Making
Look, we've all been there. You're in a meeting, a big decision needs to be made, and someone throws out an opinion based on "what they heard" or "how they feel." Maybe it's a charismatic leader, maybe it's the loudest voice, but without objective evidence, you're essentially gambling. This is precisely why metrics are critical for driving data-driven decision making. They empower organizations to move beyond intuition, hunches, and subjective biases, making informed, objective choices based on undeniable evidence. It's like switching from navigating by the stars (which can be obscured by clouds)
